@article{vassileva_capillary_2005, title = {Capillary Forces between Spherical Particles Floating at a Liquid-Liquid Interface}, volume = {21}, issn = {0743-7463}, url = {https://doi.org/10.1021/la051186o}, doi = {10.1021/la051186o}, abstract = {We study the capillary forces acting on sub-millimeter particles (0.02−0.6 mm) trapped at a liquid−liquid interface due to gravity-induced interface deformations. An analytical procedure is developed to solve the linearized capillary (Young−Laplace) equation and calculate the forces for an arbitrary number of particles, allowing also for a background curvature of the interface. The full solution is expressed in a series of Bessel functions with coefficients determined by the contact angle at the particle surface. For sub-millimeter spherical particles, it is shown that the forces calculated using the lowest order term of the full solution (linear superposition approximation; LSA) are accurate to within a few percents. Consequently the many particle capillary force is simply the sum of the isolated pair interactions. To test these theoretical results, we use video microscopy to follow the motion of individual particles and pairs of interacting particles at a liquid−liquid interface with a slight macroscopic background curvature. Particle velocities are determined by the balance of capillary forces and viscous drag. The measured velocities (and thus the capillary forces) are well described by the LSA solution with a single fitting parameter.}, number = {24}, urldate = {2025-01-20}, journal = {Langmuir}, author = {Vassileva, Nikolina D. and van den Ende, Dirk and Mugele, Frieder and Mellema, Jorrit}, month = nov, year = {2005}, pages = {11190--11200}, } @misc{noauthor_spontaneous_2025, title = {Spontaneous emission}, copyright = {Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License}, url = {https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spontaneous_emission&oldid=1280293344}, abstract = {Spontaneous emission is the process in which a quantum mechanical system (such as a molecule, an atom or a subatomic particle) transits from an excited energy state to a lower energy state (e.g., its ground state) and emits a quantized amount of energy in the form of a photon. Spontaneous emission is ultimately responsible for most of the light we see all around us; it is so ubiquitous that there are many names given to what is essentially the same process. If atoms (or molecules) are excited by some means other than heating, the spontaneous emission is called luminescence. For example, fireflies are luminescent. And there are different forms of luminescence depending on how excited atoms are produced (electroluminescence, chemiluminescence etc.). If the excitation is affected by the absorption of radiation the spontaneous emission is called fluorescence. Sometimes molecules have a metastable level and continue to fluoresce long after the exciting radiation is turned off; this is called phosphorescence. Figurines that glow in the dark are phosphorescent. Lasers start via spontaneous emission, then during continuous operation work by stimulated emission. Spontaneous emission cannot be explained by classical electromagnetic theory and is fundamentally a quantum process. The first person to correctly predict the phenomenon of spontaneous emission was Albert Einstein in a series of papers starting in 1916, culminating in what is now called the Einstein A Coefficient. Einstein's quantum theory of radiation anticipated ideas later expressed in quantum electrodynamics and quantum optics by several decades. Later, after the formal discovery of quantum mechanics in 1926, the rate of spontaneous emission was accurately described from first principles by Dirac in his quantum theory of radiation, the precursor to the theory which he later called quantum electrodynamics. Contemporary physicists, when asked to give a physical explanation for spontaneous emission, generally invoke the zero-point energy of the electromagnetic field. In 1963, the Jaynes–Cummings model was developed describing the system of a two-level atom interacting with a quantized field mode (i.e. the vacuum) within an optical cavity. It gave the nonintuitive prediction that the rate of spontaneous emission could be controlled depending on the boundary conditions of the surrounding vacuum field. These experiments gave rise to cavity quantum electrodynamics (CQED), the study of effects of mirrors and cavities on radiative corrections.}, language = {en}, urldate = {2025-04-08}, journal = {Wikipedia}, month = mar, year = {2025}, note = {Page Version ID: 1280293344}, } @article{vella_cheerios_2005, title = {The “{Cheerios} effect”}, volume = {73}, issn = {0002-9505}, url = {https://doi.org/10.1119/1.1898523}, doi = {10.1119/1.1898523}, abstract = {Objects that float at the interface between a liquid and a gas interact because of interfacial deformation and the effect of gravity. We highlight the crucial role of buoyancy in this interaction, which, for small particles, prevails over the capillary suction that often is assumed to be the dominant effect. We emphasize this point using a simple classroom demonstration, and then derive the physical conditions leading to mutual attraction or repulsion. We also quantify the force of interaction in particular instances and present a simple dynamical model of this interaction. The results obtained from this model are validated by comparison to experimental results for the mutual attraction of two identical spherical particles. We consider some of the applications of the effect that can be found in nature and the laboratory.}, number = {9}, urldate = {2024-01-11}, journal = {American Journal of Physics}, author = {Vella, Dominic and Mahadevan, L.}, month = sep, year = {2005}, pages = {817--825}, } @article{ginot_aggregation-fragmentation_2018, title = {Aggregation-fragmentation and individual dynamics of active clusters}, volume = {9}, copyright = {2018 The Author(s)}, issn = {2041-1723}, url = {https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-017-02625-7}, doi = {10.1038/s41467-017-02625-7}, abstract = {A remarkable feature of active matter is the propensity to self-organize. One striking instance of this ability to generate spatial structures is the cluster phase, where clusters broadly distributed in size constantly move and evolve through particle exchange, breaking or merging. Here we propose an exhaustive description of the cluster dynamics in apolar active matter. Exploiting large statistics gathered on thousands of Janus colloids, we measure the aggregation and fragmentation rates and rationalize the resulting cluster size distribution and fluctuations. We also show that the motion of individual clusters is entirely consistent with a model positing random orientation of colloids. Our findings establish a simple, generic model of cluster phase, and pave the way for a thorough understanding of clustering in active matter.}, language = {en}, number = {1}, urldate = {2026-04-04}, journal = {Nature Communications}, author = {Ginot, F. and Theurkauff, I. and Detcheverry, F. and Ybert, C. and Cottin-Bizonne, C.}, month = feb, year = {2018}, keywords = {Condensed-matter physics, Soft materials, Statistical physics, thermodynamics and nonlinear dynamics}, pages = {696}, } @article{mccourt_noisy_2026, title = {Noisy {Dynamical} {Systems} {Evolve} {Error} {Correcting} {Codes} and {Modularity}}, volume = {4}, url = {https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/7kcl-jshm}, doi = {10.1103/7kcl-jshm}, abstract = {Noise is a ubiquitous feature of the physical world. As a result, the first prerequisite of life is fault tolerance: maintaining integrity of state despite external bombardment. Recent experimental advances have revealed that some biological systems achieve fault tolerance by implementing mathematically intricate error correcting codes and by organizing in a modular fashion that physically separates functionally distinct subsystems. These elaborate structures represent a vanishing volume in the massive genetic configuration space. How is it possible that the primitive process of evolution, by which all biological systems evolved, achieved such unusual results? In this work, through experiments in Boolean networks, we show that the simultaneous presence of error correction and modularity in biological systems is no coincidence. Rather, it is a typical co-occurrence in noisy dynamic systems undergoing evolution. From this, we deduce the principle of error correction enhanced evolvability: systems possessing error correcting capabilities are more effectively improved by evolution than those without.}, number = {2}, urldate = {2026-04-04}, journal = {PRX Life}, author = {McCourt, Trevor and Fiete, Ila R. and Chuang, Isaac L.}, month = apr, year = {2026}, pages = {023002}, } @misc{smith_chiral_2023, title = {A chiral aperiodic monotile}, url = {http://arxiv.org/abs/2305.17743}, doi = {10.48550/arXiv.2305.17743}, abstract = {The recently discovered "hat" aperiodic monotile mixes unreflected and reflected tiles in every tiling it admits, leaving open the question of whether a single shape can tile aperiodically using translations and rotations alone. We show that a close relative of the hat -- the equilateral member of the continuum to which it belongs -- is a weakly chiral aperiodic monotile: it admits only non-periodic tilings if we forbid reflections by fiat. Furthermore, by modifying this polygon's edges we obtain a family of shapes called Spectres that are strictly chiral aperiodic monotiles: they admit only chiral non-periodic tilings based on a hierarchical substitution system.}, urldate = {2024-01-11}, publisher = {arXiv}, author = {Smith, David and Myers, Joseph Samuel and Kaplan, Craig S. and Goodman-Strauss, Chaim}, month = may, year = {2023}, note = {arXiv:2305.17743 [cs, math]}, keywords = {05B45, 52C20 (Primary) 05B50 (Secondary), Computer Science - Discrete Mathematics, F.2.2, G.2.1, Mathematics - Combinatorics, Mathematics - Metric Geometry}, } @article{voigt_aperiodic_2025, title = {An aperiodic chiral tiling by topological molecular self-assembly}, volume = {16}, copyright = {2024 The Author(s)}, issn = {2041-1723}, url = {https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-55405-5}, doi = {10.1038/s41467-024-55405-5}, abstract = {Studying the self-assembly of chiral molecules in two dimensions offers insights into the fundamentals of crystallization. Using scanning tunneling microscopy, we examine an uncommon aggregation of polyaromatic chiral molecules on a silver surface. Dense packing is achieved through a chiral triangular tiling of triads, with N and N ± 1 molecules at the edges. The triangles feature a random distribution of mirror-isomers, with a significant excess of one isomer. Chirality at the domain boundaries causes a lateral shift, producing three distinct topological defects where six triangles converge. These defects partially contribute to the formation of supramolecular spirals. The observation of different equal-density arrangements suggests that entropy maximization must play a crucial role. Despite the potential for regular patterns, all observed tiling is aperiodic. Differences from previously reported aperiodic molecular assemblies, such as Penrose tiling, are discussed. Our findings demonstrate that two-dimensional molecular self-assembly can be governed by topological constraints, leading to aperiodic tiling induced by intermolecular forces.}, language = {en}, number = {1}, urldate = {2026-04-04}, journal = {Nature Communications}, author = {Voigt, Jan and Baljozović, Miloš and Martin, Kévin and Wäckerlin, Christian and Avarvari, Narcis and Ernst, Karl-Heinz}, month = jan, year = {2025}, keywords = {Molecular self-assembly, Surface assembly}, pages = {83}, } @article{smith_aperiodic_2024, title = {An aperiodic monotile}, volume = {4}, issn = {2766-1334}, url = {https://escholarship.org/uc/item/3317z9z9}, doi = {10.5070/C64163843}, abstract = {A longstanding open problem asks for an aperiodic monotile, also known as an "einstein": a shape that admits tilings of the plane, but never periodic tilings. We answer this problem for topological disk tiles by exhibiting a continuum of combinatorially equivalent aperiodic polygons. We first show that a representative example, the "hat" polykite, can form clusters called "metatiles", for which substitution rules can be defined. Because the metatiles admit tilings of the plane, so too does the hat. We then prove that generic members of our continuum of polygons are aperiodic, through a new kind of geometric incommensurability argument. Separately, we give a combinatorial, computer-assisted proof that the hat must form hierarchical--and hence aperiodic--tilings.Mathematics Subject Classifications: 05B45, 52C20, 05B50Keywords: Tilings, aperiodic order, polyforms}, language = {en}, number = {1}, urldate = {2026-04-04}, journal = {Combinatorial Theory}, author = {Smith, David and Myers, Joseph Samuel and Kaplan, Craig S. and Goodman-Strauss, Chaim}, year = {2024}, } @misc{noauthor_predictive_nodate, title = {Predictive {Model} for {Diffusion}-{Limited} {Aggregation} {Kinetics} of {Nanocolloids} under {High} {Concentration} {\textbar} {The} {Journal} of {Physical} {Chemistry} {B}}, url = {https://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/jp2097839}, urldate = {2026-04-04}, } @article{lattuada_predictive_2012, title = {Predictive {Model} for {Diffusion}-{Limited} {Aggregation} {Kinetics} of {Nanocolloids} under {High} {Concentration}}, volume = {116}, issn = {1520-6106}, url = {https://doi.org/10.1021/jp2097839}, doi = {10.1021/jp2097839}, abstract = {Smoluchowski’s equation for the rate of aggregation of colloidal particles under diffusion-limited conditions has set the basis for the interpretation of kinetics of aggregation phenomena. Nevertheless, its use is limited to sufficiently dilute conditions. In this work we propose a correction to Smoluchowski’s equation by using a result derived by Richards (J. Phys. Chem. 1986, 85, 3520) within the framework of trapping theory. This corrected aggregation kernel, which accounts for concentration dependence effects, has been implemented in a population-balance equations scheme and used to model the aggregation kinetics of colloidal particles undergoing diffusion-limited aggregation under concentrated conditions (up to a particle volume fraction of 30\%). The predictions of population balance calculations have been validated by means of Brownian dynamic simulations. It was found that the corrected kernel can very well reproduce the results from Brownian dynamic simulations for all concentration values investigated, and is also able to accurately predict the time required by a suspension to reach the gel point. On the other hand, classical Smoluchowski’s theory substantially underpredicts the rate of aggregation as well as the onset of gelation, with deviations becoming progressively more severe as the particle volume fraction increases.}, number = {1}, urldate = {2026-04-04}, journal = {The Journal of Physical Chemistry B}, author = {Lattuada, Marco}, month = jan, year = {2012}, pages = {120--129}, } @misc{kaplan_path_2025, title = {The {Path} to {Aperiodic} {Monotiles}}, url = {http://arxiv.org/abs/2509.12216}, doi = {10.48550/arXiv.2509.12216}, abstract = {This article, written for undergraduate mathematics students, provides an accessible introduction to a few key problems in tiling theory: Heesch's problem, the isohedral number problem, and the existence of an aperiodic monotile. I contributed to the solution of the last of these problems in 2023, but many related questions remain open and worthy of study. My goal is to get more students excited about studying tiling theory.}, urldate = {2026-04-04}, publisher = {arXiv}, author = {Kaplan, Craig S.}, month = sep, year = {2025}, note = {arXiv:2509.12216 [math]}, keywords = {Mathematics - Combinatorics, Mathematics - History and Overview}, } @article{brilliantov_steady_2018, title = {Steady oscillations in aggregation-fragmentation processes}, volume = {98}, url = {https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevE.98.012109}, doi = {10.1103/PhysRevE.98.012109}, abstract = {We report surprising steady oscillations in aggregation-fragmentation processes. Oscillating solutions are observed for the class of aggregation kernels ����,��=����⁢����+����⁢���� homogeneous in masses �� and �� of merging clusters and fragmentation kernels, ����⁢��=��⁢����⁢��, with parameter �� quantifying the intensity of the disruptive impacts. We assume a complete decomposition (shattering) of colliding partners into monomers. We show that an assumption of a steady-state distribution of cluster sizes, compatible with governing equations, yields a power law with an exponential cutoff. This prediction agrees with simulation results when ��≡��−��{\textless}1. For ��=��−��{\textgreater}1, however, the densities exhibit an oscillatory behavior. While these oscillations decay for not very small ��, they become steady if �� is close to 2 and �� is very small. Simulation results lead to a conjecture that for ��{\textless}1 the system has a stable fixed point, corresponding to the steady-state density distribution, while for any ��{\textgreater}1 there exists a critical value ����, such that for ��{\textless}����, the system has an attracting limit cycle. This is rather striking for a closed system of Smoluchowski-like equations, lacking any sinks and sources of mass.}, number = {1}, urldate = {2026-04-04}, journal = {Physical Review E}, author = {Brilliantov, N. V. and Otieno, W. and Matveev, S. A. and Smirnov, A. P. and Tyrtyshnikov, E. E. and Krapivsky, P. L.}, month = jul, year = {2018}, pages = {012109}, } @article{eatson_programmable_2024, title = {Programmable {2D} materials through shape-controlled capillary forces}, volume = {121}, url = {https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.2401134121}, doi = {10.1073/pnas.2401134121}, abstract = {In recent years, self-assembly has emerged as a powerful tool for fabricating functional materials. Since self-assembly is fundamentally determined by the particle interactions in the system, if we can gain full control over these interactions, it would open the door for creating functional materials by design. In this paper, we exploit capillary interactions between colloidal particles at liquid interfaces to create two-dimensional (2D) materials where particle interactions and self-assembly can be fully programmed using particle shape alone. Specifically, we consider colloidal particles which are polygonal plates with homogeneous surface chemistry and undulating edges as this particle geometry gives us precise and independent control over both short-range hard-core repulsions and longer-range capillary interactions. To illustrate the immense potential provided by our system for programming self-assembly, we use minimum energy calculations and Monte Carlo simulations to show that polygonal plates with different in-plane shapes (hexagons, truncated triangles, triangles, squares) and edge undulations of different multipolar order (hexapolar, octopolar, dodecapolar) can be used to create a rich variety of 2D structures, including hexagonal close-packed, honeycomb, Kagome, and quasicrystal lattices. Since the required particle shapes can be readily fabricated experimentally, we can use our colloidal system to control the entire process chain for materials design, from initial design and fabrication of the building blocks, to final assembly of the emergent 2D material.}, number = {35}, urldate = {2026-04-04}, journal = {Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences}, author = {Eatson, Jack L. and Morgan, Scott O. and Horozov, Tommy S. and A. Buzza, D. Martin}, month = aug, year = {2024}, pages = {e2401134121}, } % looks like apparently there are some problems with ALIFE 2021 proceedings @inproceedings{schneider_influence_2021, title = {Influence of the geometry on the agglomeration of a polydisperse binary system of spherical particles}, abstract = {Abstract. Within the context of the European Horizon 2020 project ACDC, we intend to develop a probabilistic chemical compiler, to aid the construction of three-dimensional agglomerations of artificial hierarchical cellular constructs. These programmable discrete units offer a wide variety of technical innovations, like a portable biochemical laboratory that e.g. produces macromolecular medicine on demand. For this purpose, we have to investigate the agglomeration process of droplets and vesicles under proposed constraints, like confinement. This paper focuses on the influence of the geometry of the initialization and of the container on the agglomeration.}, language = {en}, urldate = {2026-04-05}, publisher = {MIT Press}, booktitle = {ALIFE 2021: The 2021 Conference on Artificial Life }, author = {Schneider, Johannes Josef and Faggian, Alessia and Holler, Silvia and Casiraghi, Federica and Li, Jin and Sanahuja, Lorena Cebolla and Matuttis, Hans-Georg and Hanczyc, Martin Michael and Barrow, David Anthony and Weyland, Mathias Sebastian and Flumini, Dandolo and Hotz, Peter Eggenberger and Füchslin, Rudolf Marcel}, year = {2021}, } @article{bowden_mesoscale_1999, title = {Mesoscale {Self}-{Assembly} of {Hexagonal} {Plates} {Using} {Lateral} {Capillary} {Forces}: {Synthesis} {Using} the “{Capillary} {Bond}”}, volume = {121}, issn = {0002-7863}, shorttitle = {Mesoscale {Self}-{Assembly} of {Hexagonal} {Plates} {Using} {Lateral} {Capillary} {Forces}}, url = {https://doi.org/10.1021/ja983882z}, doi = {10.1021/ja983882z}, abstract = {This paper examines self-assembly in a quasi-two-dimensional, mesoscale system. The system studied here involves hexagonal plates (“hexagons”) of poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS; 5.4 mm in diameter, 0.9−2.0 mm thick), with faces functionalized to be hydrophilic or hydrophobic, floating at the interface between perfluorodecalin (PFD) and H2O. The hexagons assemble by capillary forces originating in the interactions of the menisci at their hydrophobic and hydrophilic rectangular faces. The strength and directionality of the interactions can be tailored by manipulating the heights of the faces, the pattern of the hydrophobic faces, the pattern of hydrophobic regions on these faces, and the densities of the three interacting phases (organic liquid, aqueous liquid, polymeric solid). Examination of all 14 possible combinations of hydrophobic and hydrophilic faces on the hexagonal plates led to three outcomes:  (i) the extension of the strategies of self-assembly from the molecular to the mesoscale, (ii) the demonstration of a system in which small objects can be designed to self-assemble into a variety of arrays, and (iii) the hypothesis that capillary forces between objects can, in some circumstances, be considered to form the basis for a “bond” between themthe capillary bondand be used in synthesis in a way analogous to that in which noncovalent bonds are employed in molecular-scale synthesis.}, number = {23}, urldate = {2026-04-05}, journal = {Journal of the American Chemical Society}, author = {Bowden, Ned and Choi, Insung S. and Grzybowski, Bartosz A. and Whitesides, George M.}, month = jun, year = {1999}, pages = {5373--5391}, } @article{whitesides_self-assembly_2002, title = {Self-{Assembly} at {All} {Scales}}, volume = {295}, url = {https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1070821}, doi = {10.1126/science.1070821}, abstract = {Self-assembly is the autonomous organization of components into patterns or structures without human intervention. Self-assembling processes are common throughout nature and technology. They involve components from the molecular (crystals) to the planetary (weather systems) scale and many different kinds of interactions. The concept of self-assembly is used increasingly in many disciplines, with a different flavor and emphasis in each.}, number = {5564}, urldate = {2026-04-05}, journal = {Science}, author = {Whitesides, George M. and Grzybowski, Bartosz}, month = mar, year = {2002}, pages = {2418--2421}, } @misc{noauthor_floatiles_nodate, title = {Floatiles: {Self}-{Assembly} {Based} {On} {Cheerios} {Effect} and {Aperiodic} {Monotiles}}, author = {Karelin, Georgii}, shorttitle = {Floatiles}, url = {https://karegeo.github.io/floatiles/}, abstract = {Bookmark this to keep an eye on FloatTiles project updates}, language = {en-US}, urldate = {2026-04-05}, journal = {FloaTiles project}, } @article{haghighat_fluid-mediated_2016, title = {Fluid-{Mediated} {Stochastic} {Self}-{Assembly} at {Centimetric} and {Sub}-{Millimetric} {Scales}: {Design}, {Modeling}, and {Control}}, volume = {7}, copyright = {http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/}, issn = {2072-666X}, shorttitle = {Fluid-{Mediated} {Stochastic} {Self}-{Assembly} at {Centimetric} and {Sub}-{Millimetric} {Scales}}, url = {https://www.mdpi.com/2072-666X/7/8/138}, doi = {10.3390/mi7080138}, abstract = {Stochastic self-assembly provides promising means for building micro-/nano-structures with a variety of properties and functionalities. Numerous studi...}, language = {en}, number = {8}, urldate = {2026-04-05}, journal = {Micromachines}, author = {Haghighat, Bahar and Mastrangeli, Massimo and Mermoud, Grégory and Schill, Felix and Martinoli, Alcherio}, month = aug, year = {2016}, keywords = {control, modeling, self-assembly, stochastic systems}, } @article{bowden_self-assembly_1997, title = {Self-{Assembly} of {Mesoscale} {Objects} into {Ordered} {Two}-{Dimensional} {Arrays}}, volume = {276}, url = {https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/science.276.5310.233}, doi = {10.1126/science.276.5310.233}, abstract = {Regular arrays of topologically complex, millimeter-scale objects were prepared by self-assembly, with the shapes of the assembling objects and the wettability of their surfaces determining the structure of the arrays. The system was composed of solid objects floating at the interface between perfluorodecalin and water and interacting by lateral capillary forces; patterning of the wettability of the surfaces of the objects directs these forces. Self-assembly results from minimization of the interfacial free energy of the liquid-liquid interface. Calculations suggest that this strategy for self-assembly can be applied to objects on a micrometer scale.}, number = {5310}, urldate = {2026-04-05}, journal = {Science}, author = {Bowden, Ned and Terfort, Andreas and Carbeck, Jeff and Whitesides, George M.}, month = apr, year = {1997}, pages = {233--235}, } @article{hosokawa_two-dimensional_1996, series = {Ninth {International} {Workshop} on {Micro} {Electro} {Mechanical} {System}}, title = {Two-dimensional micro-self-assembly using the surface tension of water}, volume = {57}, issn = {0924-4247}, url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0924424797801021}, doi = {10.1016/S0924-4247(97)80102-1}, abstract = {Several self-assembling microstructures have been fabricated, and approximately 100 units floating on the surface of water have been self-assembled two-dimensionally. The basic assembly units are 400 μm in diameter, and consist of both polyimide and polysilicon thin films. Surface tension is used as the bonding force in this system. The surface tension is the local interaction between the units, and is dominant on the microscale. Each unit is bonded selectively by employing the following characteristics of the surface tension: (1) objects located at equal heights are attracted to each other; (2) large attractive forces act on sharp parts; and (3) objects located at different heights are mutually repulsed. The curling-up property of the thin films is used to obtain the different heights. We control the curling-up curvature by the thickness of the polysilicon layer. Self-assembling behaviour is also predicted by using a rate equation.}, number = {2}, urldate = {2026-04-05}, journal = {Sensors and Actuators A: Physical}, author = {Hosokawa, Kazuo and Shimoyama, Isao and Miura, Hirofumi}, month = nov, year = {1996}, keywords = {Microstructures, Self-assembly, Surface tension}, pages = {117--125}, } @article{hosokawa_dynamics_1994, title = {Dynamics of {Self}-{Assembling} {Systems}: {Analogy} with {Chemical} {Kinetics}}, volume = {1}, issn = {1064-5462}, shorttitle = {Dynamics of {Self}-{Assembling} {Systems}}, url = {https://doi.org/10.1162/artl.1994.1.4.413}, doi = {10.1162/artl.1994.1.4.413}, abstract = {In this article, we propose a new analyzing method for self-assembling systems. Its initial purpose was to predict the yield—the final amount of desired product—of our original self-assembling mechanical model. Moreover, the method clarifies the dynamical evolution of the system. In this method, the quantity of each intermediate product is adopted as state variables, and the dynamics that dominates the state variables is derived. The behavior of the system is reduced to a set of difference equations with a small degree of freedom. The concept is the same as in chemical kinetics or in population dynamics. However, it was never applied to self-assembling systems. The mathematical model is highly abstracted so that it is applicable to other self-assembling systems with only small modifications.}, number = {4}, urldate = {2026-04-05}, journal = {Artificial Life}, author = {Hosokawa, Kazuo and Shimoyama, Isao and Miura, Hirofumi}, month = jul, year = {1994}, pages = {413--427}, } @article{griffith_self-replication_2005, title = {Self-replication from random parts}, volume = {437}, copyright = {2005 Springer Nature Limited}, issn = {1476-4687}, url = {https://www.nature.com/articles/437636a}, doi = {10.1038/437636a}, abstract = {What makes biological replication so effective is the ability of the DNA template to select the right building blocks (nucleotides) from a set of randomly scattered parts, combined with the ability to correct copying errors. This enables living systems, in time, to generate exponential numbers of accurate copies of themselves. A team from MIT's Center for Bits and Atoms has developed machines that use a similar two-step process for the autonomous self-replication of a reconfigurable string of parts from randomly positioned components. Such robots, suitably miniaturized and mass-produced, could constitute self-fabricating systems whose assembly is brought about by the parts themselves.}, language = {en}, number = {7059}, urldate = {2026-04-05}, journal = {Nature}, author = {Griffith, Saul and Goldwater, Dan and Jacobson, Joseph M.}, month = sep, year = {2005}, keywords = {Humanities and Social Sciences, Science, multidisciplinary}, pages = {636--636}, } @article{miyashita_influence_2009, title = {The {Influence} of {Shape} on {Parallel} {Self}-{Assembly}}, volume = {11}, copyright = {http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/}, issn = {1099-4300}, url = {https://www.mdpi.com/1099-4300/11/4/643}, doi = {10.3390/e11040643}, abstract = {Self-assembly is a key phenomenon whereby vast numbers of individual components passively interact and form organized structures, as can be seen, for ...}, language = {en}, number = {4}, urldate = {2026-04-05}, journal = {Entropy}, author = {Miyashita, Shuhei and Nagy, Zoltán and Nelson, Bradley J. and Pfeifer, Rolf}, month = oct, year = {2009}, keywords = {degree of parallelism, distributed system, morphology, self-assembly}, pages = {643--666}, } @misc{madefrutos_water_2012, title = {Water {Oscillators}}, url = {https://madebyfrutos.wordpress.com/2012/08/14/water-oscillators/}, abstract = {Based on «ArduSnake library: Locomotion of modular snake robots» by ObiJuan. ( By means of Bluetooth communication, the 4 characteristic parameters of the 2 oscillators, can be modified: amplitude,…}, language = {es}, urldate = {2026-04-05}, journal = {MADE(by)FRUTOS}, author = {Miguel Angel de Frutos}, month = aug, year = {2012}, } @article{gifford_attraction_1971, title = {On the attraction of floating particles}, volume = {26}, issn = {0009-2509}, url = {https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/0009250971830038}, doi = {10.1016/0009-2509(71)83003-8}, abstract = {Capillary attraction between floating particles, a phenomenon of everyday experience as well as technological importance, is caused by interfacial tension and buoyancy forces that have defied calculation so far owing to the complicated shape of the intervening meniscus. The one exception is treated here; parallel, stationary cylinders of infinite length. Computations show that the attractive force falls off nearly exponentially with separation. The parallel configuration is unstable until cylinders make contact, as experiments with finite rods confirm. Résumé L'attraction capillaire entre des particules flottantes, un phénomène quotidien mais aussi d'importance technologique, est causé par la tension à l'interface et les forces de poussée qui ont, jusqu'ici, défié toute tentative de calcul à cause de la forme compliquée du ménisque intervenant dans le phenomène. La seule exception est traitée ici: le cylindres stationnaires parallèles de longueur indéfinie. Le calcul montre que la force d'attraction décroit d'une manière presque exponentielle avec la séparation. La configuration parallèle est instable jusqu'à ce que les cylindres soient en contact, comme le confirment les expériences avec des tiges de longueurs déterminées. Zusammenfassung Die kapillare Anziehung zwischen schwebenden Teilchen, eine alltäglich beobachtete Erscheinung, die jedoch auch technologische Bedeutung besitzt, wird durch Grenzflächenspannungs- und Auftriebskräfte verursacht, die sich bisher infolge der komplizierten Form des dazwischenliegenden Meniskus der genauen Berechnung entzogen haben. In diesem Artikel wird die einzige Ausnahme, nämlich der Fall paralleler, stationärer Zylinder unendlicher Länge, behandelt. Berechnungen zeigen, dass die Anziehungskraft beinahe exponential mit der trennung abfällt. Die parallele Konfiguration ist unbeständing bis die Zylinder in Berührung kommen, was durch Versuche mit endlichen Stäben bestätigt wird.}, number = {3}, urldate = {2026-04-05}, journal = {Chemical Engineering Science}, author = {Gifford, W. A. and Scriven, L. E.}, month = mar, year = {1971}, pages = {287--297}, } @article{hooshanginejad_interactions_2024, title = {Interactions and pattern formation in a macroscopic magnetocapillary {SALR} system of mermaid cereal}, volume = {15}, copyright = {2024 The Author(s)}, issn = {2041-1723}, url = {https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-024-49754-4}, doi = {10.1038/s41467-024-49754-4}, abstract = {When particles are deposited at a fluid interface they tend to aggregate by capillary attraction to minimize the overall potential energy of the system. In this work, we embed floating millimetric disks with permanent magnets to introduce a competing repulsion effect and study their pattern formation in equilibrium. The pairwise energy landscape of two disks is described by a short-range attraction and long-range repulsion (SALR) interaction potential, previously documented in a number of microscopic condensed matter systems. Such competing interactions enable a variety of pairwise equilibrium states, including the possibility of a local minimum energy corresponding to a finite disk spacing. Two-dimensional (2D) experiments and simulations in confined geometries demonstrate that as the areal packing fraction is increased, the dilute repulsion-dominated lattice state becomes unstable to the spontaneous formation of localized clusters, which eventually merge into a system-spanning striped pattern. Finally, we demonstrate that the equilibrium pattern can be externally manipulated by the application of a supplemental vertical magnetic force that remotely enhances the effective capillary attraction.}, language = {en}, number = {1}, urldate = {2026-04-05}, journal = {Nature Communications}, author = {Hooshanginejad, Alireza and Barotta, Jack-William and Spradlin, Victoria and Pucci, Giuseppe and Hunt, Robert and Harris, Daniel M.}, month = jun, year = {2024}, keywords = {Fluid dynamics, Self-assembly}, pages = {5466}, } @misc{wilt_activecheerios_2024, title = {{ActiveCheerios}: {3D}-{Printed} {Marangoni}-{Driven} {Active} {Particles} at an {Interface}}, shorttitle = {{ActiveCheerios}}, url = {http://arxiv.org/abs/2411.16011}, doi = {10.48550/arXiv.2411.16011}, abstract = {Marangoni surfers are simple, cost-effective tabletop experiments that, despite their simplicity, exhibit rich dynamics and collective behaviors driven by physicochemical mechanisms, hydrodynamic interactions, and inertial motion. This work introduces self-propelled particles designed and manufactured through 3D printing to move on the air-water interface. We develop particles with tunable motility and controlled particle-particle interactions by leveraging surface tension-mediated forces, such as the Marangoni effect for propulsion and the Cheerios effect for interactions. Rapid prototyping through 3D printing facilitates the exploration of a wide design space, enabling precise control over particle shape and function. We exemplify this by creating translational and chiral particles. Additionally, we investigate self-assembly in this system and highlight its potential for modular designs where mechanically linked particles with varying characteristics follow outlined trajectories. This research offers a flexible, low-cost approach to designing active interfacial systems and opens new possibilities for further advancements of adaptive, multifunctional devices.}, urldate = {2026-04-05}, publisher = {arXiv}, author = {Wilt, Jackson K. and Schramma, Nico and Bottermans, Jan-Willem and Jalaal, Maziyar}, month = nov, year = {2024}, note = {arXiv:2411.16011 [cond-mat]}, keywords = {Condensed Matter - Soft Condensed Matter}, } @misc{noauthor_machine_2026, title = {machine}, url = {https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/machine}, author = {dictionary.cambridge.org}, abstract = {1. a piece of equipment with several moving parts that uses power to do a…}, language = {en}, urldate = {2026-04-05}, month = apr, year = {2026}, } @misc{noauthor_definition_2026, title = {Definition of {MACHINE}}, author = {www.merriam-webster.com}, url = {https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/machine}, abstract = {a mechanically, electrically, or electronically operated device for performing a task; conveyance, vehicle; especially : automobile; a coin-operated device… See the full definition}, language = {en}, urldate = {2026-04-05}, month = apr, year = {2026}, } @book{freitas_jr_kinematic_2004, title = {Kinematic {Self}-{Replicating} {Machines}}, isbn = {978-1-57059-690-2}, abstract = {This book offers a general review of the voluminous theoretical and experimental literature pertaining to physical self-replicating systems. The principal focus here is on self-replicating machine systems. Most importantly, we are concerned with kinematic self-replicating machines: systems in which actual physical objects, not mere patterns of information, undertake their own replication. Following a brief burst of activity in the 1950s and 1980s, the field of kinematic replicating systems design received new interest in the 1990s with the emerging recognition of the feasibility of molecular nanotechnology. The field has experienced a renaissance of research activity since 1999 as researchers have come to recognize that replicating systems are simple enough to permit experimental laboratory demonstrations of working devices.}, language = {en}, publisher = {Taylor \& Francis}, author = {Freitas Jr, Robert A.}, month = oct, year = {2004}, note = {Google-Books-ID: 2S1TAAAAMAAJ}, keywords = {Science / Life Sciences / Biology}, } @book{freitas_kinematic_2004, address = {Georgetown, Tex}, title = {Kinematic self-replicating machines}, isbn = {9781570596902}, language = {eng}, publisher = {Landes Bioscience/Eurekah.com}, author = {Freitas, Robert A.}, collaborator = {Merkle, Ralph C.}, year = {2004}, keywords = {Artificial intelligence, DNA replication, Intelligence artificielle, Molecular electronics, Nanotechnologies, Nanotechnology, artificial intelligence}, } @book{taylor_rise_2020, address = {Cham}, title = {Rise of the {Self}-{Replicators}: {Early} {Visions} of {Machines}, {AI} and {Robots} {That} {Can} {Reproduce} and {Evolve}}, copyright = {http://www.springer.com/tdm}, isbn = {9783030482336 9783030482343}, shorttitle = {Rise of the {Self}-{Replicators}}, url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-030-48234-3}, language = {en}, urldate = {2026-04-05}, publisher = {Springer International Publishing}, author = {Taylor, Tim and Dorin, Alan}, year = {2020}, doi = {10.1007/978-3-030-48234-3}, keywords = {Artificial Intelligence (AI), Artificial Life (ALife), Evolutionary Computing, History of Science, History of Technology, Robots, Self-replicants, Self-replicating Machines}, } @article{penrose_mechanics_1958, title = {Mechanics of {Self}-{Reproduction}}, volume = {23}, issn = {1469-1809}, url = {https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1469-1809.1958.tb01442.x}, doi = {10.1111/j.1469-1809.1958.tb01442.x}, abstract = {The construction of various types of machines which can be automatically self-reproducing, in a sense derived from von Neumann, has been outlined. The features, which any such machine must possess, have been discussed and their possible significance in the understanding of DNA replication has been indicated. I am much indebted to Dr C. A. B. Smith for his valuable suggestions in the interest of making this paper comprehensible, and to Mr A. J. Lee for his admirable drawings.}, language = {en}, number = {1}, urldate = {2026-04-05}, journal = {Annals of Human Genetics}, author = {Penrose, L. S.}, year = {1958}, pages = {59--72}, } @article{virgo_evolvable_2012, title = {Evolvable physical self-replicators}, volume = {18}, issn = {1064-5462}, abstract = {Building an evolvable physical self-replicating machine is a grand challenge. The main problem is that the device must be capable of hereditary variation, that is, replicating in many configurations-configurations into which it enters unpredictably by mutation. Template replication is the solution found by nature. A scalable device must also be capable of miniaturization, and so have few or no moving and electronic parts. Here a significant step toward this goal is presented in the form of a physical template replicator made from small plastic pieces containing embedded magnets that float on an air-hockey-type table and undergo stochastic motion. Our units replicate by a process analogous to the replication of DNA, except without the involvement of enzymes. Building a physical rather than a computational model forces us to confront several problems that have analogues on the nano scale. In particular, replication must be maintained by preventing side reactions such as spontaneous ligation, cyclization, product inhibition, and elongation at staggered ends. The last of these results in ever-lengthening sequences in a process known as the elongation catastrophe. The extreme specificity of structure required by the monomers is indirect evidence that some kind of natural selection took place prior to the existence of nucleotide analogues during the origin of life.}, language = {eng}, number = {2}, journal = {Artificial Life}, author = {Virgo, Nathaniel and Fernando, Chrisantha and Bigge, Bill and Husbands, Phil}, year = {2012}, pmid = {22356155}, keywords = {Biological Evolution, DNA Replication, Miniaturization, Origin of Life}, pages = {129--142}, } @book{hofstadter_godel_1979, address = {Hassocks, England}, title = {Godel, {Escher}, {Bach}: {An} {Eternal} {Golden} {Braid}}, shorttitle = {Godel, {Escher}, {Bach}}, publisher = {Basic Books}, author = {Hofstadter, Douglas Richard}, year = {1979}, } @book{kauffman_world_2019, title = {A {World} {Beyond} {Physics}: {The} {Emergence} and {Evolution} of {Life}}, shorttitle = {A {World} {Beyond} {Physics}}, publisher = {Oup Usa}, author = {Kauffman, Stuart A.}, year = {2019}, } @book{maturana_autopoiesis_1980, address = {Dordrecht}, series = {Boston {Studies} in the {Philosophy} and {History} of {Science}}, title = {Autopoiesis and {Cognition}: {The} {Realization} of the {Living}}, volume = {42}, copyright = {http://www.springer.com/tdm}, isbn = {9789027710161 9789400989474}, shorttitle = {Autopoiesis and {Cognition}}, url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-94-009-8947-4}, language = {en}, urldate = {2026-04-05}, publisher = {Springer Netherlands}, author = {Maturana, Humberto R. and Varela, Francisco J.}, year = {1980}, doi = {10.1007/978-94-009-8947-4}, keywords = {architecture, autonomy, cognition, evolution, individual, individuality, living, memory, organ, organization, reproduction}, } @book{maturana_autopoiesis_2012, title = {Autopoiesis and {Cognition}: {The} {Realization} of the {Living}}, isbn = {9789400989474}, shorttitle = {Autopoiesis and {Cognition}}, abstract = {This is a bold, brilliant, provocative and puzzling work. It demands a radical shift in standpoint, an almost paradoxical posture in which living systems are described in terms of what lies outside the domain of descriptions. Professor Humberto Maturana, with his colleague Francisco Varela, have undertaken the construction of a systematic theoretical biology which attempts to define living systems not as they are objects of observation and description, nor even as in teracting systems, but as self-contained unities whose only reference is to them selves. Thus, the standpoint of description of such unities from the 'outside', i. e. , by an observer, already seems to violate the fundamental requirement which Maturana and Varela posit for the characterization of such system- namely, that they are autonomous, self-referring and self-constructing closed systems - in short, autopoietic systems in their terms. Yet, on the basis of such a conceptual method, and such a theory of living systems, Maturana goes on to define cognition as a biological phenomenon; as, in effect, the very nature of all living systems. And on this basis, to generate the very domains of interac tion among such systems which constitute language, description and thinking.}, language = {en}, publisher = {Springer Science \& Business Media}, author = {Maturana, H. R. and Varela, F. J.}, month = dec, year = {2012}, note = {Google-Books-ID: iOjVBQAAQBAJ}, keywords = {Philosophy / General, Philosophy / Reference, Science / Philosophy \& Social Aspects}, } @article{deacon_reciprocal_2006, title = {Reciprocal {Linkage} between {Self}-organizing {Processes} is {Sufficient} for {Self}-reproduction and {Evolvability}}, volume = {1}, issn = {1555-5550}, url = {https://doi.org/10.1162/biot.2006.1.2.136}, doi = {10.1162/biot.2006.1.2.136}, abstract = {A simple molecular system (“autocell”) is described consisting of the reciprocal linkage between an autocatalytic cycle and a self-assembling encapsulation process where the molecular constituents for the capsule are products of the autocatalysis. In a molecular environment sufficiently rich in the substrates, capsule growth will also occur with high predictability. Growth to closure will be most probable in the vicinity of the most prolific autocatalysis and will thus tend to spontaneously enclose supportive catalysts within the capsule interior. If subsequently disrupted in the presence of new substrates, the released components will initiate production of additional catalytic and capsule components that will spontaneously re-assemble into one or more autocell replicas, thereby reconstituting and sometimes reproducing the original. In a diverse molecular environment, cycles of disruption and enclosure will cause auto-cells to incidentally encapsulate other molecules as well as reactive substrates. To the extent that any captured molecule can be incorporated into the autocatalytic process by virtue of structural degeneracy of the catalytic binding sites, the altered autocell will incorporate the new type of component into subsequent replications. Such altered autocells will be progenitors of “lineages” with variant characteristics that will differentially propagate with respect to the availability of commonly required substrates. Autocells are susceptible to a limited form of evolution, capable of leading to more efficient, more environmentally fitted, and more complex forms. This provides a simple demonstration of the plausibility of open-ended reproduction and evolvability without self-replicating template molecules (e.g., nucleic acids) or maintenance of persistent nonequilibrium chemistry. This model identifies an intermediate domain between prebiotic and biotic systems and bridges the gap from nonequilibrium thermodynamics to life.}, language = {en}, number = {2}, urldate = {2026-04-05}, journal = {Biological Theory}, author = {Deacon, Terrence W.}, month = jun, year = {2006}, keywords = {artificial life, autocatalysis, nonequilibrium, origins of life, protocell, replicator, self-assembly}, pages = {136--149}, } @book{deacon_incomplete_2013, title = {Incomplete {Nature}: {How} {Mind} {Emerged} from {Matter}}, isbn = {9780393343908}, shorttitle = {Incomplete {Nature}}, abstract = {As physicists work toward completing a theory of the universe and biologists unravel the molecular complexity of life, a glaring incompleteness in this scientific vision becomes apparent. The "Theory of Everything" that appears to be emerging includes everything but us: the feelings, meanings, consciousness, and purposes that make us what we are. This is an unacceptable omission. We need a "theory of everything" that does not leave it absurd that we exist. Incomplete Nature begins by accepting what other theories try to deny: that, although mental contents do indeed lack the physical properties that are assumed to be necessary for something to phave physical consequences in the world, they are still entirely products of physical processes. And they have an unprecedented kind of causal power that is intrinsically incomplete and therefore unlike anything that physics and chemistry alone have so far explained. The book's radically challenging conclusion is that we are made of these specific absenses--such stuff as dreams are made on--and that what is not immediately present can be as physically potent as that which is. It offers a figure/background shift that shows how even meanings and values can be understood as legitimate components of the physical world}, language = {en}, publisher = {W.W. Norton}, author = {Deacon, Terrence William}, year = {2013}, keywords = {Medical / Neuroscience, Philosophy / Mind \& Body, Philosophy / Movements / Phenomenology, Science / Cognitive Science, Science / General, Science / Life Sciences / Biology, Science / Life Sciences / Evolution, Science / Life Sciences / Neuroscience}, } @article{gershenson_self-organizing_2025, title = {Self-organizing systems: what, how, and why?}, volume = {2}, copyright = {2025 The Author(s)}, issn = {2731-8753}, shorttitle = {Self-organizing systems}, url = {https://www.nature.com/articles/s44260-025-00031-5}, doi = {10.1038/s44260-025-00031-5}, abstract = {I present a personal account of self-organizing systems, framing relevant questions to better understand self-organization, information, complexity, and emergence. With this aim, I start with a notion and examples of self-organizing systems (what?), continue with their properties and related concepts (how?), and close with applications (why?) in physics, chemistry, biology, collective behavior, ecology, communication networks, robotics, artificial intelligence, linguistics, social science, urbanism, philosophy, and engineering.}, language = {en}, number = {1}, urldate = {2026-04-06}, journal = {npj Complexity}, author = {Gershenson, Carlos}, month = mar, year = {2025}, keywords = {Applied mathematics, Information theory and computation}, pages = {10}, } @book{simon_sciences_1970, address = {Cambridge, MA, USA}, edition = {3}, title = {The {Sciences} of the {Artificial}}, isbn = {9780262690232}, language = {en}, publisher = {MIT Press}, author = {Simon, Herbert A.}, month = jan, year = {1970}, } @book{johnston_allure_2008, title = {The {Allure} of {Machinic} {Life}: {Cybernetics}, {Artificial} {Life}, and the {New} {AI}}, isbn = {9780262276351}, shorttitle = {The {Allure} of {Machinic} {Life}}, url = {https://direct.mit.edu/books/monograph/3240/The-Allure-of-Machinic-LifeCybernetics-Artificial}, abstract = {An account of the creation of new forms of life and intelligence in cybernetics, artificial life, and artificial intelligence that analyzes both the simila}, language = {en}, urldate = {2026-04-06}, publisher = {The MIT Press}, author = {Johnston, John}, month = aug, year = {2008}, doi = {10.7551/mitpress/9780262101264.001.0001}, } @article{altshuler_vibrot_2013, title = {Vibrot, a {Simple} {Device} for the {Conversion} of {Vibration} into {Rotation} {Mediated} by {Friction}: {Preliminary} {Evaluation}}, volume = {8}, issn = {1932-6203}, shorttitle = {Vibrot, a {Simple} {Device} for the {Conversion} of {Vibration} into {Rotation} {Mediated} by {Friction}}, url = {https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0067838}, doi = {10.1371/journal.pone.0067838}, abstract = {While “vibrational noise” induced by rotating components of machinery is a common problem constantly faced by engineers, the controlled conversion of translational into rotational motion or vice-versa is a desirable goal in many scenarios ranging from internal combustion engines to ultrasonic motors. In this work, we describe the underlying physics after isolating a single degree of freedom, focusing on devices that convert a vibration along the vertical axis into a rotation around this axis. A typical Vibrot (as we label these devices) consists of a rigid body with three or more cantilevered elastic legs attached to its bottom at an angle. We show that these legs are capable of transforming vibration into rotation by a “ratchet effect”, which is caused by the anisotropic stick-slip-flight motion of the leg tips against the ground. Drawing an analogy with the Froude number used to classify the locomotion dynamics of legged animals, we discuss the walking regime of these robots. We are able to control the rotation frequency of the Vibrot by manipulating the shaking amplitude, frequency or waveform. Furthermore, we have been able to excite Vibrots with acoustic waves, which allows speculating about the possibility of reducing the size of the devices so they can perform tasks into the human body, excited by ultrasound waves from the outside.}, language = {en}, number = {8}, urldate = {2026-04-06}, journal = {PLOS ONE}, author = {Altshuler, Ernesto and Pastor, Jose Martin and Garcimartín, Angel and Zuriguel, Iker and Maza, Diego}, month = aug, year = {2013}, keywords = {Acceleration, Elasticity, Mechanical energy, Robots, Sound waves, Vibration, Vibration engineering, Walking}, pages = {e67838}, } @article{ko_small_2022, title = {Small fire ant rafts are unstable}, volume = {7}, url = {https://link.aps.org/doi/10.1103/PhysRevFluids.7.090501}, doi = {10.1103/PhysRevFluids.7.090501}, abstract = {In this combined experimental and numerical study, we film the formation of fire ant rafts to determine how they cohere together. Surprisingly, we discover that ants prioritize separation and exploration: they flail legs and bounce off neighbors when they collide. Despite the active repulsion, fire ants cohere by the Cheerios effect, a capillary force that attracts small floating objects such as breakfast cereal. Experiments reveal that rafts consisting of fewer than ten ants disintegrate within minutes. Predictions by a Langevin model reproduce the stability transition and the critical raft size, which emerges from the balance between their mutual repulsion and the Cheerios effect. This work may inspire physically grounded models for the behavior of natural swarms.}, number = {9}, urldate = {2026-04-06}, journal = {Physical Review Fluids}, author = {Ko, Hungtang and Hadgu, Mathias and Komilian, Keyana and Hu, David L.}, month = sep, year = {2022}, pages = {090501}, } @book{simondon_mode_2017, address = {Minneapolis}, edition = {First University of Minnesota Press Edition 2017}, title = {On the mode of existence of technical objects}, isbn = {9781517904876}, language = {eng}, publisher = {University Of Minnesota Press}, author = {Simondon, Gilbert}, translator = {Malaspina, Cécile and Rogove, John}, collaborator = {{Univocal Publishing}}, year = {2017}, } @inproceedings{mytilinaios_designed_2004, title = {Designed and {Evolved} {Blueprints} {For} {Physical} {Self}-{Replicating} {Machines}}, url = {https://direct.mit.edu/books/oa-edited-volume/4339/chapter/181612/Designed-and-Evolved-Blueprints-For-Physical-Self}, doi = {10.7551/mitpress/1429.003.0004}, abstract = {Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives International Public License}, language = {en}, urldate = {2026-04-05}, booktitle = {Artificial {Life} {IX}: {Proceedings} of the {Ninth} {International} {Conference} on the {Simulation} and {Synthesis} of {Living} {Systems}}, author = {Mytilinaios, Efstathios and Desnoyer, Mark and Marcus, David and Lipson, Hod}, month = sep, year = {2004}, } @inproceedings{karelin_floatiles_2024, title = {Floatiles: {Self}-{Assembly} {Based} {On} {Cheerios} {Effect} and {Aperiodic} {Monotiles}}, shorttitle = {Floatiles}, abstract = {Abstract. This project aims to create an affordable macroscopic physical experiment using simple principles to explore pattern formation and dynamics. Combining the Cheerios effect, a wellobserved phenomenon in fluid dynamics, with the geometric concept of aperiodic monotiles makes it possible to observe the self-assembly of complex structures from identical elements. Aperiodic monotiles are unique geometric shapes with a notable property: they can tile an infinite plane without forming a repeating pattern. The specific geometric properties of the monotiles influence the resulting formations. Perturbations can increase the complexity of clusters and make them evolve and interact with each other. This setup facilitates the self-organization of patterns on the liquid surface.}, language = {en}, urldate = {2026-04-05}, booktitle = {{ALIFE} 2024: {Proceedings} of the 2024 {Artificial} {Life} {Conference}}, publisher = {MIT Press}, author = {Karelin, Georgii}, month = jul, year = {2024}, } @inproceedings{haghighat_lily_2015, title = {Lily: {A} {Miniature} {Floating} {Robotic} {Platform} for {Programmable} {Stochastic} {Self}-{Assembly}}, shorttitle = {Lily}, url = {https://infoscience.epfl.ch/handle/20.500.14299/112291}, doi = {10.1109/ICRA.2015.7139452}, abstract = {Fluid-mediated programmable stochastic self-assembly offers promising means to formation of target structures capable of a variety of functionalities. While miniaturized building blocks allow for finer resolutions in such structures, as well as access to unconventional environments, they can only be endowed with very limited on-board resources. In this paper we present the design, fabrication, and experimental results validating the key functionalities of the Lily robot as the building block in a programmable stochastic fluidic self-assembly system, capable of forming 2D structures. In particular, we aim at driving a system including an arbitrary number of Lilies to form target structures through parallel selfassembly, using exclusively local information and communication. While capable of wireless communication to a base station, Lilies are endowed with custom-designed electropermanent magnets to latch and also to communicate locally with their neighbors. Several experiments validate the reliability of the radio channel as well as the robustness of the local induction-based communication which allows for data transfer at 9600 bps with a success rate of 92.8\% without repetition. The latches are shown to hold four times the weight of a single robot and to drag in another Lily from a distance of 4 mm in water.}, language = {en}, urldate = {2026-04-05}, booktitle = {2015 {IEEE} {International} {Conference} on {Robotics} and {Automation} ({ICRA})}, author = {Haghighat, Bahar and Droz, Emmanuel and Martinoli, Alcherio}, year = {2015}, } @book{steinhardt_second_2019, address = {New York}, title = {The {Second} {Kind} of {Impossible}: {The} {Extraordinary} {Quest} for a {New} {Form} of {Matter}}, isbn = {9781476729923 9781476729947}, shorttitle = {The {Second} {Kind} of {Impossible}}, abstract = {Intro -- Title Page -- Dedication -- Preface -- Part I: Making the Impossible Possible -- Chapter One: Impossible! -- Chapter Two: The Penrose Puzzle -- Chapter Three: Finding the Loophole -- Chapter Four: A Tale of Two Laboratories -- Chapter Five: Something Exciting to Show You -- Chapter Six: Perfectly Impossible -- Part II: The Quest Begins -- Chapter Seven: Did Nature Beat Us? -- Chapter Eight: Luca -- Chapter Nine: Quasi-Happy New Year -- Chapter Ten: When You Say Impossible -- Chapter Eleven: Blue Team vs. Red Team -- Chapter Twelve: A Capricious if not Overtly Malicious God -- Chapter Thirteen : The 'Secret' Secret Diary -- Chapter Fourteen: Valery Kryachko -- Chapter Fifteen : Something Rare Surrounding Something Impossible -- Chapter Sixteen: Icosahedrite -- Part III: Kamchatka or Bust -- Chapter Seventeen: Lost -- Chapter Eighteen: Found -- Chapter Nineteen: Ninety-Nine Percent -- Chapter Twenty: Beating the Odds -- Chapter Twenty-One : 'L'uomo Dei Miracoli' -- Chapter Twenty-Two: Nature's Secret -- Photographs -- Acknowledgments -- About the Author -- Index -- Image Credits -- Copyright}, language = {eng}, publisher = {Simon \& Schuster}, author = {Steinhardt, Paul}, year = {2019}, } @article{bindi_natural_2009, title = {Natural {Quasicrystals}}, volume = {324}, url = {https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/science.1170827}, doi = {10.1126/science.1170827}, abstract = {Quasicrystals are solids whose atomic arrangements have symmetries that are forbidden for periodic crystals, including configurations with fivefold symmetry. All examples identified to date have been synthesized in the laboratory under controlled conditions. Here we present evidence of a naturally occurring icosahedral quasicrystal that includes six distinct fivefold symmetry axes. The mineral, an alloy of aluminum, copper, and iron, occurs as micrometer-sized grains associated with crystalline khatyrkite and cupalite in samples reported to have come from the Koryak Mountains in Russia. The results suggest that quasicrystals can form and remain stable under geologic conditions, although there remain open questions as to how this mineral formed naturally.}, number = {5932}, urldate = {2026-04-07}, journal = {Science}, author = {Bindi, Luca and Steinhardt, Paul J. and Yao, Nan and Lu, Peter J.}, month = jun, year = {2009}, pages = {1306--1309}, } @article{koppl_thoughts_2025, title = {Of thoughts and things: how a new model of evolution explains the coevolution of culture and technology}, volume = {6}, issn = {2662-6144}, shorttitle = {Of thoughts and things}, url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/s43253-024-00141-1}, doi = {10.1007/s43253-024-00141-1}, abstract = {I develop a bioeconomic theory of social institutions that helps to explain the coevolution of ideas, social institutions, and technology. The theory is “bioeconomic” because it traces economic institutions to their biological origins and foundations. The theory draws on a new model of evolution that uses the notion of combination to take Darwinism in new directions. I explain this new model and apply it to the problem of coevolution in economics and other social sciences. The new model builds in part on Brian Arthur’s theory of the “combinatorial evolution” of technology and Stuart Kauffman’s theory of the “adjacent possible.” Central to this new model of evolution is a simple combinatorial equation called the “TAP equation,” where “TAP” stands for “theory of the adjacent possible.” The new model is yielding fruit in a variety of fields including economics.}, language = {en}, number = {1}, urldate = {2026-04-07}, journal = {Review of Evolutionary Political Economy}, author = {Koppl, Roger}, month = apr, year = {2025}, keywords = {Coevolution, Culture and technology, New model of evolution, TAP equation, Theory of the adjacent possible}, pages = {215--238}, } @book{arthur_nature_2009, title = {The {Nature} of {Technology}: {What} {It} {Is} and {How} {It} {Evolves}}, isbn = {9781439165782}, shorttitle = {The {Nature} of {Technology}}, abstract = {“More than anything else technology creates our world. It creates our wealth, our economy, our very way of being,” says W. Brian Arthur. Yet despite technology’s irrefutable importance in our daily lives, until now its major questions have gone unanswered. Where do new technologies come from? What constitutes innovation, and how is it achieved? Does technology, like biological life, evolve? In this groundbreaking work, pioneering technology thinker and economist W. Brian Arthur answers these questions and more, setting forth a boldly original way of thinking about technology. The Nature of Technology is an elegant and powerful theory of technology’s origins and evolution. Achieving for the development of technology what Thomas Kuhn’s The Structure of Scientific Revolutions did for scientific progress, Arthur explains how transformative new technologies arise and how innovation really works. Drawing on a wealth of examples, from historical inventions to the high-tech wonders of today, Arthur takes us on a mind-opening journey that will change the way we think about technology and how it structures our lives. The Nature of Technology is a classic for our times.}, language = {en}, publisher = {Simon and Schuster}, author = {Arthur, W. Brian}, month = aug, year = {2009}, keywords = {Business \& Economics / Industries / Computers \& Information Technology, Science / General, Technology \& Engineering / General}, } @article{ozman_w_2012, title = {W. {Brian} {Arthur}: {The} nature of technology: what it is and how it evolves}, volume = {13}, issn = {1573-7632}, shorttitle = {W. {Brian} {Arthur}}, url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/s10710-012-9158-5}, doi = {10.1007/s10710-012-9158-5}, language = {en}, number = {2}, urldate = {2026-04-07}, journal = {Genetic Programming and Evolvable Machines}, author = {Ozman, Muge}, month = jun, year = {2012}, pages = {265--267}, } @book{suzumori_science_2023, address = {Singapore}, series = {Natural {Computing} {Series}}, title = {The {Science} of {Soft} {Robots}: {Design}, {Materials} and {Information} {Processing}}, copyright = {https://www.springernature.com/gp/researchers/text-and-data-mining}, isbn = {9789811951732 9789811951749}, shorttitle = {The {Science} of {Soft} {Robots}}, url = {https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-981-19-5174-9}, language = {en}, urldate = {2026-04-07}, publisher = {Springer Nature}, editor = {Suzumori, Koichi and Fukuda, Kenjiro and Niiyama, Ryuma and Nakajima, Kohei}, year = {2023}, doi = {10.1007/978-981-19-5174-9}, keywords = {bio-inspired robotics, biohybrid devices, biomechanics, biophysics, embodied intelligence, embodiment, flexible electronics, material science, physical reservoir computing, soft machines, soft material, soft matter physics, soft robotics}, } @article{medvet_science_2025, title = {The science of soft robots, {Koichi} {Suzumori}, {Kenjiro} {Fukuda}, {Ryuma} {Niiyama}, and {Kohei} {Nakajima}: {ISBN} 978-9811951732, {Springer} 2023}, volume = {26}, issn = {1573-7632}, shorttitle = {The science of soft robots, {Koichi} {Suzumori}, {Kenjiro} {Fukuda}, {Ryuma} {Niiyama}, and {Kohei} {Nakajima}}, url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/s10710-025-09508-7}, doi = {10.1007/s10710-025-09508-7}, language = {en}, number = {1}, urldate = {2026-04-07}, journal = {Genetic Programming and Evolvable Machines}, author = {Medvet, Eric and Salvato, Erica}, month = jan, year = {2025}, pages = {9}, } @article{rossiter_soft_2021, title = {Soft robotics: the route to true robotic organisms}, volume = {26}, issn = {1614-7456}, shorttitle = {Soft robotics}, url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/s10015-021-00688-w}, doi = {10.1007/s10015-021-00688-w}, abstract = {Soft Robotics has come to the fore in the last decade as a new way of conceptualising, designing and fabricating robots. Soft materials empower robots with locomotion, manipulation, and adaptability capabilities beyond those possible with conventional rigid robots. Soft robots can also be made from biological, biocompatible and biodegradable materials. This offers the tantalising possibility of bridging the gap between robots and organisms. Here, we discuss the properties of soft materials and soft systems that make them so attractive for future robots. In doing so, we consider how future robots can behave like, and have abilities akin to, biological organisms. These include huge numbers, finite lifetime, homeostasis and minimal—and even positive—environmental impact. This paves the way for future robots, not as machines, but as robotic organisms.}, language = {en}, number = {3}, urldate = {2026-04-07}, journal = {Artificial Life and Robotics}, author = {Rossiter, Jonathan}, month = aug, year = {2021}, keywords = {Avogadro’s number of robots, Biodegradable robots, Robot organisms, Soft robotics}, pages = {269--274}, } @book{tibbits_active_2017, address = {Cambridge, MA, USA}, title = {Active {Matter}}, isbn = {9780262036801}, abstract = {The first book on active matter, an emerging field focused on programming physical materials to assemble themselves, transform autonomously, and react to information.}, language = {en}, publisher = {MIT Press}, editor = {Tibbits, Skylar}, month = sep, year = {2017}, } @inproceedings{nierop_potential_2014, title = {The potential of the aquatic water fern {Azolla} within a biobased economy}, url = {https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2014EGUGA..16.6428N}, abstract = {Azolla is a free-floating freshwater fern capable of fixing atmospheric carbon dioxide and nitrogen, the latter of which through its symbiosis with the cyanobacteria Anabaena azollae. It is currently ranked among the fastest growing plants on Earth and occurs in both tropical and temperate freshwater ecosystems. Therefore, it is non-directly competitive with food crops. In addition, Azolla does not require inorganic fertilizers, which makes it a potential and unique source of biomass for the sustainable production of fuels and chemicals that are currently derived from fossil (fuel) sources. The biochemical composition of Azolla allows the production of biofuel or biobased chemicals that are of interest to the chemical industry. Of Azolla, two extractable groups of compounds are of particular interest, i.e. the polyphenols (condensed tannins and ester-bound caffeic acid) and the lipids. The antioxidant property of polyphenols and their application to the treatment of cancer, diabetes and cardiovascular diseases has further contributed to the growth of the polyphenol market. In addition, they can be chemically transformed into aromatic platform and specialty chemicals. The composition of the lipid fraction of Azolla is characterized by highly specific compounds consisting of C26-C36 carbon chains all bearing a ω20-hydroxy group. Such compounds produce an oil fraction upon hydrous pyrolysis, or, alternatively, are well suited to be converted to e.g. various specialty chemicals that are hardly available from both natural sources. Indeed, upon chemical conversion these lipids may yield components for fuels, plastics, cosmetics, and lubricants. Another group of interesting compounds within the lipid group are the polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). The demand for PUFAs has witnessed a significant increase over the last three years, particularly due to their benefits as cholesterol lowering agents. Here we will present some of the thermal and chemical conversions of the Azolla-derived biochemicals to show the potential of this crop to produce both commonly used components and promising new ones.}, urldate = {2026-04-21}, author = {Nierop, Klaas G. J. and Jongerius, Anna L. and Bijl, Peter K. and Bruijnincx, Pieter C. A. and Klein Gebbink, Robertus J. M. and Reichart, Gert-Jan}, month = may, year = {2014}, note = {ADS Bibcode: 2014EGUGA..16.6428N}, pages = {6428}, } @inproceedings{di_paolo_gilbert_2016, title = {Gilbert {Simondon} and the enactive conception of life and mind}, url = {https://dx.doi.org/10.1162/978-0-262-33936-0-ch002}, doi = {10.1162/978-0-262-33936-0-ch002}, abstract = {Abstract. The work of French philosopher Gilbert Simondon is seeing a vigorous rediscovery. His ideas have a richlargely untappedpotential for science, e.g., in origins of life studies, developmental psychology, embodied cognition, and artificial life. I summarise some key concepts of Simondons philosophy side-by-side with ideas in enactivism, an approach to life and mind based on the works of Francisco Varela, Hans Jonas, and Maurice Merleau-Ponty. I hope to show that there is much overlap between the two approaches, which is good, but also many productive complementarities, and some tensions, which is better. Simondon encourages enactivism by making its implications more explicit. He advocates the abandonment of hylomorphic metaphysics (the conceptual separability of form and matter) for an ontology of restless and open-ended materiality, relationality, and virtuality. According to him, being and becoming are mutually co-defined. The subject, in her ongoing individuation, sustains inherently meaningful relations with her world. Physical, biological, mental, and social processes of individuation nicely complement the different kinds of precarious autonomy and sense-making elaborated by enactive theory, concepts that in turn are only implicit in Simondons work. Individuation involves the organization that happens in a milieu capable of abundant potentialities when a process of concrete transduction occurs from more to less metastable states (crystallization is one example). Organisms are processes of individuation prevented from finishing through regulated engagements with the world in search of new sources of potentiality. This coheres with the enactive concept of life as the regulation of the tensions between self-production and self-distinction. Life and mind, for Simondon, entail the neotenic expansion of the early stages of individuation such that its termination is temporarily and progressively delayed. This makes explicit the material conditions of autonomy and introduces new elements for enactivism such as the notion of pre-individual criticality as inherent in the living body.}, language = {en}, urldate = {2026-04-12}, publisher = {MIT Press}, author = {Di Paolo, Ezequiel}, month = jul, year = {2016}, pages = {14--14}, } @incollection{simondon_individuation_2020, address = {Minneapolis London}, series = {Posthumanities}, title = {Individuation in light of notions of form and information. {Volume} 1}, isbn = {9780816680023}, language = {eng}, number = {57}, publisher = {Minnesota Press}, author = {Simondon, Gilbert}, year = {2020}, } @article{sayama_swarm_2025, title = {Swarm systems as a platform for open-ended evolutionary dynamics}, volume = {383}, issn = {1364-503X}, url = {https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2024.0143}, doi = {10.1098/rsta.2024.0143}, abstract = {Artificial swarm systems have been extensively studied and used in computer science, robotics, engineering and other technological fields, primarily as a platform for implementing robust distributed systems to achieve pre-defined objectives. However, such swarm systems, especially heterogeneous ones, can also be utilized as an ideal platform for creating open-ended evolutionary dynamics that do not converge toward pre-defined goals but keep exploring diverse possibilities and generating novel outputs indefinitely. In this article, we review Swarm Chemistry and its variants as concrete sample cases to illustrate beneficial characteristics of heterogeneous swarm systems, including the cardinality leap of design spaces, multi-scale structures/behaviours and their diversity, and robust self-organization, self-repair and ecological interactions of emergent patterns, all of which serve as the driving forces for open-ended evolutionary processes. Applications to science, engineering and art/entertainment as well as the directions of further research are also discussed.This article is part of the theme issue ‘The road forward with swarm systems’.}, number = {2289}, urldate = {2026-04-22}, journal = {Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences}, author = {Sayama, Hiroki}, month = jan, year = {2025}, pages = {20240143}, } @article{ning_macroscopic_2024, title = {Macroscopic, artificial active matter}, volume = {3}, copyright = {© The Author(s) 2024. Published by Science Press and EDP Sciences.}, issn = {2097-1168, 2097-1400}, url = {https://www.nso-journal.org/articles/nso/abs/2024/04/NSO20240005/NSO20240005.html}, doi = {10.1360/nso/20240005}, abstract = {Artificial active matters on a macroscopic scale, including vibrating particles, robots, and camphor boats, have attracted increasing attentions due to their uniform properties, rich and easily controllable parameters, convenient observation, and the independence of biochemical processes from physical processes, especially providing these unique advantages for researching the collective behaviors under strong confinement and crowded surroundings. In this review, we present an overview of motion models, mechanisms, and dynamic characteristics of various active particles, both in free and complex media. Additionally, we delve into the collective behaviors of “dry” active matter, covering structural and dynamic properties observed in experiments and theoretical models. We summarize the impact of hydrodynamic interactions on the dynamics and structures of these active particles within hydrodynamic environments. Lastly, we discuss emerging opportunities and challenges for future advancement of macroscopic artificial active matter.}, language = {en}, number = {4}, urldate = {2026-04-22}, journal = {National Science Open}, author = {Ning, Luhui and Zhu, Hongwei and Yang, Jihua and Zhang, Qun and Liu, Peng and Ni, Ran and Zheng, Ning}, month = jul, year = {2024}, pages = {20240005}, } @book{garcia-ojalvo_noise_1999, address = {New York, NY}, series = {Institute for {Nonlinear} {Science}}, title = {Noise in {Spatially} {Extended} {Systems}}, copyright = {http://www.springer.com/tdm}, isbn = {9781461271826 9781461215363}, url = {http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-4612-1536-3}, urldate = {2026-04-22}, publisher = {Springer}, author = {García-Ojalvo, Jordi and Sancho, José M.}, year = {1999}, doi = {10.1007/978-1-4612-1536-3}, keywords = {Fokker-Planck equation, dynamics, functional analysis, mathematics, partial differential equation}, } @article{zhao_softrafts_2026, title = {{SoftRafts}: floating and adaptive soft modular robots}, volume = {4}, copyright = {2026 The Author(s)}, issn = {2731-4278}, shorttitle = {{SoftRafts}}, url = {https://www.nature.com/articles/s44182-025-00070-z}, doi = {10.1038/s44182-025-00070-z}, abstract = {Modular robots offer adaptability and reconfigurability, yet their application in aquatic environments and dynamic multi-tasking—particularly for manipulation—remains underexplored. We hypothesize that incorporating soft-bending capabilities into modular designs can significantly enhance versatility in such settings. In this work, we introduce a variable-stiffness soft modular robot that integrates rigid 3D-printed components, soft foam, a cable-driven actuation mechanism, and a propeller for aquatic propulsion. Permanent magnets enable fast, passive inter-module connections. This robot can bend, steer, and connect with others, supporting a variety of functions. It acts as a gripper to retrieve debris from water surfaces, assembles into a floating raft for drone landings, and forms a snake-like chain that transitions seamlessly between land and water. Additionally, multiple robots can collaborate in swarm-like behaviors to transport payloads. Our findings demonstrate that combining soft deformation with modularity enables a multifunctional robotic platform capable of navigating and interacting in complex, aquatic environments.}, language = {en}, number = {1}, urldate = {2026-04-22}, journal = {npj Robotics}, author = {Zhao, Luyang and Jiang, Yitao and She, Chun-Yi and Li, Alberto Quattrini and Chen, Muhao and Balkcom, Devin}, month = jan, year = {2026}, keywords = {Computer science, Mechanical engineering}, pages = {8}, } @article{murata_self-assembly_1997, title = {Self-assembly method for mechanical structure}, volume = {1}, issn = {1614-7456}, url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02471124}, doi = {10.1007/BF02471124}, abstract = {A novel design method for a mechanical system is proposed and a prototype model is constructed. Conventional machine systems are composed of various parts which are all passive. In this new scheme, mechanical systems are made with only one kind of active and intelligent unit. The prototype of this kind of unit is called a “fractum”, which has actuators, sensors, and information processing functions. In the system, there is no supervising unit nor central controller. The units are all the same and have an equivalent capacity, so that any of them can replace any other unit. Knowledge about the whole system is embedded in every unit, and this enables a group of these units to organize the whole system by themselves and to repair it by themselves. The algorithm for this self-organization and self-repair is designed and tested by computer simulations.}, language = {en}, number = {3}, urldate = {2026-04-26}, journal = {Artificial Life and Robotics}, author = {Murata, Satoshi and Kurokawa, Haruhisa and Tomita, Kohji and Kokaji, Shigeru}, month = sep, year = {1997}, keywords = {Fractum, Self-assembly, Self-repair, Unit structure}, pages = {111--115}, } @article{savoie_phototactic_2018, title = {Phototactic supersmarticles}, volume = {23}, issn = {1614-7456}, url = {https://doi.org/10.1007/s10015-018-0473-7}, doi = {10.1007/s10015-018-0473-7}, abstract = {Smarticles or smart active particles are small robots equipped with only basic movement and sensing abilities that are incapable of rotating or displacing individually. We study the ensemble behavior of smarticles, i.e., the behavior a collective of these very simple computational elements can achieve, and how such behavior can be implemented using minimal programming. We show that an ensemble of smarticles constrained to remain close to one another (which we call a supersmarticle), achieves directed locomotion toward or away from a light source, a phenomenon known as phototaxing. We present experimental and theoretical models of phototactic supersmarticles that collectively move with a directed displacement in response to light. The motion of the supersmarticle is stochastic, performing approximate free diffusion, and is a result of chaotic interactions among smarticles. The system can be directed by introducing asymmetries among the individual smarticle’s behavior, in our case, by varying activity levels in response to light, resulting in supersmarticle-biased motion.}, language = {en}, number = {4}, urldate = {2026-04-26}, journal = {Artificial Life and Robotics}, author = {Savoie, William and Cannon, Sarah and Daymude, Joshua J. and Warkentin, Ross and Li, Shengkai and Richa, Andréa W. and Randall, Dana and Goldman, Daniel I.}, month = dec, year = {2018}, keywords = {Active matter, Locomotion, Phototaxing, Programmable matter, Swarm robotics}, pages = {459--468}, } @article{meakin_effects_1984, title = {The effects of rotational diffusion on the fractal dimensionality of structures formed by cluster–cluster aggregation}, volume = {81}, issn = {0021-9606}, url = {https://doi.org/10.1063/1.447398}, doi = {10.1063/1.447398}, abstract = {The effects of rotational diffusion on cluster–cluster aggregation have been investigated using two‐dimensional off lattice simulations. Earlier work has shown that, in the absence of rotational motion, diffusion limited cluster–cluster aggregation in two dimensions leads to structures with a fractal dimensionality (D) of 1.4–1.45. In the limit of very fast rotational diffusion (as compared to translational diffusion), the fractal dimensionality is 1.0 (for all Euclidean dimensionalities). For the model used in this paper to investigate the effects of rotational diffusion D varies continuously from a value of 1.40–1.45 to a limiting value of 1.0 as the rate of rotational diffusion is increased. Similar results are expected in higher dimensional simulations.}, number = {10}, urldate = {2026-04-26}, journal = {The Journal of Chemical Physics}, author = {Meakin, Paul}, month = nov, year = {1984}, pages = {4637--4639}, }